Individual Reflective Account Of Leadership Development

Individual Reflective Account Of guide DevelopmentTitle A experience(prenominal) reflective narrative on how engaging with the lead literary works has affected my take in expressions of attractionship.IntroductionThe theories of transformational leadinghip ( mystifying, 1985 cryptic and Avolio, 1994) and magnetized attractors (conger and Kanungo, 1987) represent popular approaches to the conceptualisation of drawing cardship and give birth arguably evolved to be central to the field. However, a flake of scholars have raised several(prenominal) issues with these approaches (Pawar, 2003 Yukl, 1999). and it is the intention here to highlight a number of concerns that relate to the ch on the wholeenge of give lessonsing leadershiphip. This addresses an bea of look across in the literature as there has been limited consideration of the instructing of leadership (Doh, 2003).The Meaning of leadersResearchers interested in leadership have approached the development of an accord of leadership from a variety of military positions. a great deal of the leadership research conducted during the first half of twentieth century was centered on the identification of somebodyal traits (attributes) that characterised those individuals who emerged as leaders.A review of the leadership literature reveals that there be multiple definitions that have been disposed(p) to the leadership construct. Bass (1990) steeringes on the concept of leadership. He suggests that there are several divergent approaches to the definition. succession each of these perspectives and uses of the term is a legitimate use of the construct of leadership, each reflects a different conceptualisation than that which tradition every(prenominal)y has been employed. Bass points out that definitions coffin nail be used to serve a variety of purposes. Bass (1960) noned that the definition used in a forkicular study of leadership depends on the purposes of the study. agreeabl e with this, Yukl (19945) concluded that leadership research should be designed to provide information relevant to the entire couch of definitions, so that over time it will be possible to compare the utility of different conceptualizations and sustain at many consensus on the matter.Bass (199019) further notes that researchers have developed definitions to serve the following different purposes (1) to identify the object to be observed, (2) to identify a form of practice, (3) to satisfy a particular judge orientation, (4) to avoid a particular orientation or implication for a practice, and (5) to provide a butt for the development of speculation. The definitions indicate a progression of thought, although historically, many trends overlapped. The earlier definitions identified leadership as a focus of group wait on and movement, personality in action. The next type considered it as the art of bring forth compliance. The more recent definitions conceive of leadership in term s of influence relationships, power differentials, persuasion, influence on intent achievement, role differentiation, reinforcement, initiation of structure, and perceived attributions of behaviour that are unvarying with what the what the perceivers believe leadership to be. The loyalty is that leadership whitethorn in fact involve all these things.Re view leadershipBarker (1997) argues that the ambiguity contact what we understand as leadership is central to the struggle of teaching leadership. Rost (1991) indeed notes that the leadership literature although vast, is ofttimes contradictory, confusing and lacks cohesion. BrymanHYPERLINK http//0-www.emeraldinsight.com.emu.londonmet.ac.uk/journals.htm?issn=0143-7739volume=27issue=2articleid=1545747show= hypertext mark-up languageidb11HYPERLINK http//0-www.emeraldinsight.com.emu.londonmet.ac.uk/journals.htm?issn=0143-7739volume=27issue=2articleid=1545747show=htmlidb11s (1996) documentation of four chronological phases of leadershi p theory, is illustrative of changing conceptions of leadershipTrait theories (concerned with an identification of leaders traits).Behavioural theories (concerned with identification of behavioural styles of leaders).Contingency theories (concerned with a focus on fitting behavioural styles to situational factors).New theories of leadership (concerned with a focus on the articulation of a vision).Arguably, such(prenominal) new theories of leadership have over recent years evolved as central to our understanding of leadership with an emphasis on transformational leadership where a leader stimulates pursuit to change their motives, beliefs and harbors and capabilities so that the following own interests and personal goals give out congruent with the system of rules (Bass, 1985). An important facet of this leadership is charisma, and indeed Conger and Kanungo (1987) have developed a leadership theory that specifically focuses on this dimension. Conger HYPERLINK http//0-www.emerald insight.com.emu.londonmet.ac.uk/journals.htm?issn=0143-7739volume=27issue=2articleid=1545747show=htmlidb17et al.HYPERLINK http//0-www.emeraldinsight.com.emu.londonmet.ac.uk/journals.htm?issn=0143-7739volume=27issue=2articleid=1545747show=htmlidb17 (2000, p. 748) suggest that magnetized leaders differ from other leaders by their ability to formulate and vocalize an inspirational vision and by behaviours that they and their mission are extraordinary. In both toughies there is a ordinary suggestion of a leader inspiring chase to a shared vision. This conceptualisation has arguably become widely accepted in the literature. However, around have questioned such mainstream thinking and invite a greater openness to the consideration of leadership than is presently found (Alvesson and Sveningsson, 2003).It is suggested here that a conceit of a leader inspiring followers to a shared vision represents only one way to think close leadership and whitethorn not be of much assistance to t hose concerned with the teaching of leadership. It is in this repute that I intend to argue that this dominant conceptualisation represents a particular way of thinking intimately boldnesss and four-in-handial work (of which leadership is one aspect), namely what may be described as systems- correspond thinking.Systems-control Orthodoxy tends to advertize a kinda mechanistic view of organisations and managerial work get holding managing as an activity in the first place concerned with designing and controlling work organisations as if they were big machine-like systems rationally devised to meet unambiguous organisational goals (Watson, 2005, p. 2). such(prenominal) thinking derives from modernist and universalistic aspirations to maximise control over human circumstances with the manager being viewed as an expert who controls and motivates subordinates to behave in particular ways consistent with the organisations goals. Indeed, Barker (2001, p. 479) challenges the feel of new leadership theory, arguing that the work of Bass (1985, 1990) for example, clings to the idea that leadership is well-nigh leaders supervising subordinates, about subordinates running(a) hard toward institutional objectives as the primary goal for leadership and about the leaders ability to have a bun in the oven/ scoff/motivate subordinates to release their own needs to work toward the interests of the leader or the institution that the leader represents. The extent then to which new theories provide an alternative perspective of leadership is thus questionable since along with previous conceptualisations, they continue to be framed by systems-control thinking.It is suggested that an alternative way to think about leadership is to adopt process-relational thinking. To adopt such thinking would be to recognise thatManagers like everyone else in organisational settings, are continually striving to make sense of numerous crosscutting and actioning goals and purposes. Managers and non-managers alike constantly have to make and create bargains, exert power, resist power, cope with conflicts of interest and negotiate understandings with others to make sure that the goods are produced or operate provided to a level and quality that enables the organisation to remain in existence (Watson, 2005, pp. 2-3).The origins of such thinking may be seen to be associated with a dissatisfaction with mainstream systems-control thinking and in particular, the critique of Silverman (1970) which drew upon ideas from social action theory (Berger and Luckman, 1967), highlighting an understanding of organisations as social constructs produced and reproduced through their members activities and later being built upon to emphasise the belief of negotiated order (Day and Day, 1977). To view the organisation in process-relational terms thus involves a shift from seeing the organisation as a goal pursuing entity as suggested by a systems-control perspective to thinking about the organisation as ongoing patterns of meaning making and activity brought about as people in relationships to others and to their cultures (Watson, 2005, p. 6). Viewing the organisation through a process-relational lens thus accepts that only partial managerial control can ever be achieved given the ongoing and emergent nature of organisational activity and the centrality of people in relationships to others with their inevitable complexities and differing interests. However, it is important to note that the adoption of a process-relational perspective (or indeed a systems-control one) goes beyond a way of seeing the organising and managing of work, it also represents a way of talking and acting towards organising and managing. Thus a manager who adopts a process-relational framework is more likely to take into account broader and more-subtle aspects of work behaviour.Arguably, the central impulse of leaders inspiring followers to a shared vision seen in new leadership theories bec omes more problematic when thinking in process-relational terms. It is thus suggested here that thinking about leadership in process-relational terms may be more helpful to management educators as it does greater justice to the complex, messy realities of organisational life and as such provides greater assistance in helping managers to make sense of their management practice, and in particular, the part of their practice that is leadership.Systems-control vs process-relational framing of leadershipIt is suggested that theories of transformational and attractive leadership are tied to a systems-control perspective of organisations. at a lower place we raise a number of issues that emerge from the adoption of such a perspective. The issues raised here are by no means exhaustive but quite an serve to illustrate some of the difficulties in framing leadership in a systems-control way and in particular ensuing tensions for the teaching of leadership draws on the work of Watson (2005 ) and summarises the issues discussed below, highlighting the central features of a systems-control leadership perspective contrasted with a process-relational one. We problematise a number of features of systems-control thinking in relation to leadership, namely the assumption of a unitary organisation the emphasis fixed upon the individual leader often portrayed in terms of superhero status and the subsequent neglect of others intricate in leadership processes, and relatedly the separation and elevation of leadership from other organisational activities. We suggest that adopting a process-relational leadership perspective offers a more grounded and realistic conceptualisation which accepts the plurality of organisational life, focuses on leadership as an emergent process which includes the contributions of others and sees leadership as integral to the organising and managing of work.The unitary and fixed organisationCentral to systems-control thinking is a concept of the pursui t of clear organisational goals, designed by the manager or leader who then motivates others to act in ways which will achieve these goals. It is suggested that this is problematic for a number of reasons. Such a way of thinking about leadership is based upon a unitary view of organisations that proposes all organisational members share the goals of the organisation and are thus motivated to act in ways that will ensure the realisation of such goals. twain transformational and charismatic leadership theories can be seen to uphold unitarist assumptions. Central to Basss theory is a conception of subordinates transcending their egotism interests for the goals of the organisation, with Bass and Avolio (1994, p. 3) for example suggesting that the (transformational) leader creates clearly communicated expectations that followers want to meet, and similarly Conger and Kanungo (1987) hypothesise that charismatic leadership will result in high internal cohesion, low internal conflict, hi gh value congruence and high consensus. It is suggested that such assumptions are problematic since they downplay the multitude of conflicting goals, purposes and beliefs that organisational members hold in reality that seriously questions ideals of consensus and cohesion. Although Bass and Avolio (1994) acknowledge that followers hold a diverse set of views, needs and aspirations, they suggest that through the use of inspirational motivation the leader is able to align diverse followers around a vision. Thus there remains a belief that high consensus can be achieved and thus conflict, negotiation and politics that are inevitable in organisations tend to be marginalised. Notably, Barker (1997) reminds us of BurnsHYPERLINK http//0-www.emeraldinsight.com.emu.londonmet.ac.uk/journals.htm?issn=0143-7739volume=27issue=2articleid=1545747show=htmlidb12HYPERLINK http//0-www.emeraldinsight.com.emu.londonmet.ac.uk/journals.htm?issn=0143-7739volume=27issue=2articleid=1545747show=htmlidb12s (19 78) definition of leadership which emphasises leadership as a process which occurs within a context of competition and conflict. Interestingly, Basss theory of transformational leadership has built upon Burnss work and yet downplays this important dimension.It may be argued that assumptions of a unitary organisation may oversimplify the reality that is found in organisations. Similarly, systems-control thinking implies that the goals of the organisation are somehow fixed and once achieved the work of the leader is done. Again, this is seen to oversimplify the case. Conger and Kanungo, 1987, p. 46) exemplify a focus on achievement of fixed goals suggesting that one cannot lead when there is no time to come goal to pursue. This is seen to ignore the essentially emergent nature of organisational life in that organising and managing is in a constant call forth of becoming (Watson, 2002). The fluid and dynamic nature of organisations makes it difficult to envisage when there would be no future goal to pursue.Generally, given that models of transformational and charismatic leadership are framed by systems-control thinking means that they may be seen as less helpful in assisting managers to understand leadership as they do not do justice to the complex reality found in organisations. Recent leadership research and findings from our own work further suggest a number of issues with such theories that relate to this tendency to present an oversimplified and sometimes romanticised view of organisational life.The promotion of the superheroConsistent with systems-control thinking, theories of transformational and charismatic leadership present an individualistic conception of leadership, since there is a focus on the leader as a particular(prenominal) person. Indeed, there is a focus on a gifted individual come outingly in possession of almost superhuman, magical powers that may be seen to spellbind followers to act in ways desired by the leader. Words such as extraordi nary, unconventional and heroic typify a description of leader behaviours. Bass (1985, pp. 47-48) for example, highlights the extraordinariness of the transformational, charismatic leader suggesting that the anomalous vision of charismatic leaders that makes it possible for them to see around corners stems from their greater freedom from internal conflict whereas the ordinary manager is a continuing victim of their self doubts and personal traumas. However, it is unclear from the literature what scarcely it means to be extraordinary or unconventional and therefore limited help is offered to our practical attempts to teach leadership. Moreover, Alimo-Metcalfe HYPERLINK http//0-www.emeraldinsight.com.emu.londonmet.ac.uk/journals.htm?issn=0143-7739volume=27issue=2articleid=1545747show=htmlidb1et al.HYPERLINK http//0-www.emeraldinsight.com.emu.londonmet.ac.uk/journals.htm?issn=0143-7739volume=27issue=2articleid=1545747show=htmlidb1 (2002) argue that new theories of leadership create d angerous myths because they create a notion of leadership that is inaccessible to most ordinary mortals. Further, the idea that a leader must in some way be gifted shows a regression to notions of leadership as an innate ability and as such suggests little can be done by way of teaching leadership. Indeed, in my own auditing work, I found several managers who perceived leadership as an inspirational gift and therefore attempts to teach leadership were seen as limitedI dont think good leaders are people that you can, I think the term is a good leader is born, you cant turn some soundbox from being a poor leader into a good leader by putting them on some courses that mixed bag of inspirational skill is something that that individual has and I dont think you can always train that into somebody (project manager).Whilst the notion of heroic leadership may hold weight for some there is a growing body of license that debunks this leadership myth. Numerous studies are now found which may be said to convey to an emerging anti-heroic leadership perspective which suggests leaders are not larger than life individuals with special powers rather they are far more ordinary and reserved.The work of Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe (2001) offers a very different conception of transformational leadership to that described earlier. Their work highlights the salience of what the leader does for the individual such as empowering, valuing, supporting and encouraging. This is contrasted with dominant ideas of the leader acting as a role model and inspiring the follower. Indeed, Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe suggest that followership, so central to transformational and charismatic leadership theory is absent in their work. Comments made by managers during my own audit work were consistent with this view with managers talking of supporting and encouraging others rather than inspiring followersWell those things leadership can be a reassurance, a firm decision, a supportive dec ision, giving people encouragement, being genuinely prepared to stick your head above the parapet where other people arent sometimes. Being decisive rather than indecisive. Not always leading from the front but just letting people know that you are supportive of what they are doing that they can rely on you if things go wrong (operations director).Taking external the notion of followership diminishes the importance of the heroic leader since there is a decreased need for an inspirational figure to model the way for followers. Instead Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe (2001) argue that their work suggests a greater sense of proximity, openness, humility and vulnerability.Collins (2001) provides evidence that suggests that successful organisations do not have leaders who are charismatic, heroic figures but rather individuals who vaunt personal humility and professional will. He found that successful leaders which he terms level five leaders, were shy unpretentious, awkward and mode st but at the same time had an enormous join of ambition not for themselves but the organisation. Similarly, Badaracco (2001) suggests the importance of quiet leadership. This is seen not to inspire or thrill, but to focus on small things, careful moves and measured efforts. He further suggests that quiet leaders have an understanding of the reality of their situations noting the limits of their powers and understanding that they are only one piece on the chessboard. This emerging work would seem to conceptualise leadership in perhaps more realistic ways focusing attention away from ideas of inspirational powers and instead a suggestion of an ordinary person working(a) alongside others. This is consistent with a process-relational framing of leadership since it is recognised that leaders are like everybody else and do not possess special powers thus moving attention away from ideas of special personality attributes. Thus there is hope for the legal age of being able to contribute to leadership and a suggestion that there may be some role for the management teacher.The isolated leader and the neglect of group processesThe focus on the heroic leader is problematic since it diverts attention from others involved in the leadership process and thus downplays the relational aspects of leadership. Whilst the contribution of followers is noted, there is a tendency to over emphasise the ability of the individual leader, this is perhaps exemplified when poor achievement is automatically blamed on the actions of the leader (Khurana, 2002). Yukl (1999) proposes that instead of focusing on a single person who influences followers, many people can be viewed as contributors to the overall process of leadership in organisations. He suggests that this conception of leadership does not require an individual who is exceptional or who can perform all of the essential leadership functions, only a set of people who collectively perform them.Research undertaken by Heifetz and La urie (2001) supports the notion of a more collaborative conception of leadership. They suggest that the leader is not somebody who has all the solutions at their disposal rather they are somebody who asks questions. They suggest that one can lead with no more than a question in hand.Research carried out with directors of public health in the UK supports the notion of focusing on others in the leadership process (McAreavey HYPERLINK http//0-www.emeraldinsight.com.emu.londonmet.ac.uk/journals.htm?issn=0143-7739volume=27issue=2articleid=1545747show=htmlidb28et al.HYPERLINK http//0-www.emeraldinsight.com.emu.londonmet.ac.uk/journals.htm?issn=0143-7739volume=27issue=2articleid=1545747show=htmlidb28, 2001). The directors of public health interviewed in McAreavey HYPERLINK http//0-www.emeraldinsight.com.emu.londonmet.ac.uk/journals.htm?issn=0143-7739volume=27issue=2articleid=1545747show=htmlidb28et al.HYPERLINK http//0-www.emeraldinsight.com.emu.londonmet.ac.uk/journals.htm?issn=0143-7739v olume=27issue=2articleid=1545747show=htmlidb28HYPERLINK http//0-www.emeraldinsight.com.emu.londonmet.ac.uk/journals.htm?issn=0143-7739volume=27issue=2articleid=1545747show=htmlidb28s (2001) study suggested that effective leadership placed an emphasis on working with others and not guiding others.These shifts in focus are consistent with work by Barker (1997) and Rost (1991) who suggested that we should be focusing on group processes and think of collaborators and not followers and thus is in accordance with Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfes rejection of followership. Yukl (1999) has criticised transformational and charismatic leadership theories for a neglect of group processes and thus salient aspects of leadership are overlooked such as networking, building support for ideas and negotiation. Such arguments echo Hosking (1988) who proposed that it would be more helpful to focus on leadership as a process rather than leaders as persons which is clearly to frame leadership in proces s-relational terms. It is suggested here that viewing leadership as a collaborative process of interaction provides for a more grounded notion of leadership and thus potentially provides more helpful suggestions for teaching leadership. For example, a focus on helping leaders in their attempts to negotiate seems more achievable than helping leaders to inspire others.The separation of leadership and managementInherent to theories of transformational and charismatic leadership is a notion that leadership is a specialised and separate activity undertaken by heroic, isolated figures described above. This division of leadership is typical of orthodox management thinking which separates issues of managerial work tending to view these as identifiable and distinct (Watson, 2002). As Schruijer and Vansina (2002) argue such splitting obscures the complexity of life. Further, there is a tendency not only to see leadership as separate from management but also superior. In Basss theory for examp le, management is associated with transactional leadership which is seen to be a useful but inferior leadership approach, which is relatively simple and straightforward to achieve. Bass (1985, p. 26) argues that to be transactional is the easy way out to be transformational is the more difficult path to pursue. Such a separation is upheld by numerous scholars such as Zaleznik (1992) who suggests that managers are concerned with humdrum activities and maintaining order whereas leaders are concerned with novel and exciting activities and stimulate change. Mangham and Pye (1991, p. 13) have criticised this separation arguing thatIt results in postal code more than a vague feeling that managing is something rather mundane, looking after the nuts and bolts of the enterprise and leading is something special and precious undertaken by the really important people in the enterprise. They argue that leading is not a specialised and separate activity, but simply an aspect albeit a highly salie nt aspect, of managing. Others have similarly suggested that leadership and management may be more usefully seen as related roles rather than as separate activities undertaken by separate people (Nadler and Tushman, 1990 Yukl, 1999).